South-eastern Asia · MYS

Malaysia

The story · 9 chapters

How it was drawn

Malay sultanates fought over by Portugal, Aceh, Siam and the Dutch, gathered under British rule in the nineteenth century and joined in 1963 into one federation on both sides of the South China Sea.

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Through the ages

Rivals in history

The kingdoms, empires and states Malaysia fought or stood against, from the first to today.

Chola Empire1025
In 1025 the Chola king Rajendra I sends a fleet from southern India against Srivijaya and its ports, including Kadaram, usually identified with Kedah. The raid weakens Srivijaya's hold on the straits.
Ayutthaya Kingdom (Siam)1400 to 1500
In the fifteenth century Ayutthaya claims overlordship of the Malay peninsula. Malacca, which seeks the protection of Ming China, refuses, and the Malay Annals tell of Siamese attacks beaten back in the middle of the century.
Portuguese Empire1511 to 1641
Portugal storms Malacca in 1511 and holds it for 130 years against repeated attacks by Johor and Aceh, until a Dutch and Johor siege takes the city in 1641.
Sultanate of Aceh1564 to 1629
Aceh, in northern Sumatra, fights Johor and the Portuguese for the strait. It sacks Johor's capital in 1564 and 1613 and conquers Pahang, Kedah and Perak, until its great fleet is destroyed outside Malacca in 1629.
Dutch East India Company1641 to 1824
The Dutch take Malacca in 1641 and try to control the tin trade of the peninsula. They fight the Bugis of Riau and Selangor in the 1780s, and hand Malacca to Britain under the treaty of 1824.
Siam1821 to 1909
Siam invades Kedah in 1821 and rules it directly until 1842. Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis remain Siamese vassals until the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 transfers them to Britain.
British Empire1874 to 1957
Britain extends its rule over the sultanates from the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. The killing of the British Resident of Perak in 1875 leads to war, and a revolt in Pahang lasts from 1891 to 1895. Malaya becomes independent in 1957.
Empire of Japan1941 to 1945
Japan invades on 8 December 1941, takes the peninsula and Singapore within ten weeks and occupies Sarawak and North Borneo. Its rule lasts until the surrender of 1945.
Malayan Communist Party1948 to 1989
The Malayan Communist Party wages a guerrilla war from 1948. The Emergency is declared over in 1960, but its fighters hold out along the Thai border until a peace agreement signed at Hat Yai in 1989.
PhilippinesSince 1962Still open
The Philippines claims Sabah as heir to the Sultanate of Sulu and has never dropped the claim. In 2013 armed followers of a Sulu sultan claimant land at Lahad Datu and are defeated by Malaysian forces.
Indonesia1963 to 1966
Indonesia under Sukarno opposes the creation of Malaysia and sends raiders into Sarawak, Sabah and the peninsula during the Konfrontasi. British and Commonwealth troops help defend Malaysia until peace in 1966.
Singapore1979 to 2008
Malaysia and Singapore both claim Pedra Branca, a rocky islet with a lighthouse at the entrance of the Singapore Strait. In 2008 the International Court of Justice gives it to Singapore and nearby Middle Rocks to Malaysia.
People's Republic of ChinaSince 1979Still open
China's sweeping claims in the South China Sea overlap waters off Sarawak and the Spratly reefs that Malaysia holds. Chinese coast guard ships regularly patrol Luconia Shoals, inside Malaysia's exclusive economic zone.

Today

Malaysia now

Malaysia’s location has long made it an important cultural, economic, historical, social, and trade link between the islands of Southeast Asia and the mainland. Through the Strait of Malacca, which separates the Malay Peninsula from the archipelago, flowed maritime trade and with it influences from China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa.

Capital: Kuala Lumpur
Government: federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Head of government: Anwar Ibrahim
Head of state: Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor
Languages: Malay
Area: 330,534 km²

Through time

Then and now

Population35.1 million2023 · 6.1 million in 1950
Life expectancy76.7 years2023 · 48.5 years in 1950
GDP per person$26,6282022 · $2,485 in 1950
Living in cities77%2025 · 21% in 1950
Literacy96%2022 · 38% in 1950
Political regimeElectoral democracy2025 · Closed autocracy in 1950
Military alliancesNone of these2024 · None of these in 1950
Military spending1.0% of GDP2025
War deathsNone2025

Population: HYDE 3.3, Gapminder and UN WPP. GDP per capita: Maddison Project Database 2023. Urban share: UN WPP. Life expectancy: Riley, HMD, UN WPP. Literacy: OWID historical estimates, World Bank, UNESCO. Military spending: SIPRI. War deaths: UCDP. Political regime: V-Dem, Regimes of the World. All via Our World in Data (CC BY 4.0). Alliances and organization memberships: compiled by Atlas. Satellites in orbit: CelesTrak SATCAT. Modern borders, backcast.

Relations

Close partners and tensions

Close partners

United Kingdom
Australia
United States
Singapore
Japan

Summarised from World Bank and Wikipedia data, updated 23 October 2026.

Rivals in history

The kingdoms, empires and states Malaysia fought or stood against, from the first to today.

Chola Empire1025

In 1025 the Chola king Rajendra I sends a fleet from southern India against Srivijaya and its ports, including Kadaram, usually identified with Kedah. The raid weakens Srivijaya's hold on the straits.

Ayutthaya Kingdom (Siam)1400 to 1500

In the fifteenth century Ayutthaya claims overlordship of the Malay peninsula. Malacca, which seeks the protection of Ming China, refuses, and the Malay Annals tell of Siamese attacks beaten back in the middle of the century.

Portuguese Empire1511 to 1641

Portugal storms Malacca in 1511 and holds it for 130 years against repeated attacks by Johor and Aceh, until a Dutch and Johor siege takes the city in 1641.

Sultanate of Aceh1564 to 1629

Aceh, in northern Sumatra, fights Johor and the Portuguese for the strait. It sacks Johor's capital in 1564 and 1613 and conquers Pahang, Kedah and Perak, until its great fleet is destroyed outside Malacca in 1629.

Dutch East India Company1641 to 1824

The Dutch take Malacca in 1641 and try to control the tin trade of the peninsula. They fight the Bugis of Riau and Selangor in the 1780s, and hand Malacca to Britain under the treaty of 1824.

Siam1821 to 1909

Siam invades Kedah in 1821 and rules it directly until 1842. Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis remain Siamese vassals until the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 transfers them to Britain.

British Empire1874 to 1957

Britain extends its rule over the sultanates from the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. The killing of the British Resident of Perak in 1875 leads to war, and a revolt in Pahang lasts from 1891 to 1895. Malaya becomes independent in 1957.

Empire of Japan1941 to 1945

Japan invades on 8 December 1941, takes the peninsula and Singapore within ten weeks and occupies Sarawak and North Borneo. Its rule lasts until the surrender of 1945.

Malayan Communist Party1948 to 1989

The Malayan Communist Party wages a guerrilla war from 1948. The Emergency is declared over in 1960, but its fighters hold out along the Thai border until a peace agreement signed at Hat Yai in 1989.

PhilippinesSince 1962Still open

The Philippines claims Sabah as heir to the Sultanate of Sulu and has never dropped the claim. In 2013 armed followers of a Sulu sultan claimant land at Lahad Datu and are defeated by Malaysian forces.

Indonesia1963 to 1966

Indonesia under Sukarno opposes the creation of Malaysia and sends raiders into Sarawak, Sabah and the peninsula during the Konfrontasi. British and Commonwealth troops help defend Malaysia until peace in 1966.

Singapore1979 to 2008

Malaysia and Singapore both claim Pedra Branca, a rocky islet with a lighthouse at the entrance of the Singapore Strait. In 2008 the International Court of Justice gives it to Singapore and nearby Middle Rocks to Malaysia.

People's Republic of ChinaSince 1979Still open

China's sweeping claims in the South China Sea overlap waters off Sarawak and the Spratly reefs that Malaysia holds. Chinese coast guard ships regularly patrol Luconia Shoals, inside Malaysia's exclusive economic zone.

Malaysia now

Capital

Kuala Lumpur

Government

federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy

Head of government

Anwar Ibrahim

Head of state

Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor

Languages

Malay

Area

330,534 km²

Then and now

Population35.1 million2023 · 6.1 million in 1950

Life expectancy76.7 years2023 · 48.5 years in 1950

GDP per person$26,6282022 · $2,485 in 1950

Living in cities77%2025 · 21% in 1950

Literacy96%2022 · 38% in 1950

Political regimeElectoral democracy2025 · Closed autocracy in 1950

Military alliancesNone of these2024 · None of these in 1950

Military spending1.0% of GDP2025

War deathsNone2025